In elections that year, the NYM ended the domination of the NNDP in the Legislative Council and worked to establish a national network of affiliates. Although this trade grew to significant proportionspalm oil exports alone were worth 1 billion a year by 1840it was concentrated near the coast, where palm trees grew in abundance. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. [58], Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". 2, p. 211-221. . In the immediate post-World War II period, Nigeria benefited from a favourable trade balance. Chapter 2 argues that following the transformation of the Northern Nigerian region by the Sokoto Jihad in the nineteenth century, Islamic structures provided the crucial structural and ideological frameworks on which the British colonial administrative system was rationalized in the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in the first half of the twentieth century. The Women's War of 1929, known among Igbo women as Ogu Umunwanyi, occurred from November 23 to January 10, 1930. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. They later discovered that the demand for . Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local Efik traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. The British accomplished the colonization by using its military. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. The Eastern region was dominated by Azikiwe and the Western one by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, a Yoruba lawyer who in 1950 founded the Action Group. (Specifically it would enable direct subsidy of the less profitable Northern jurisdiction.) He was contemptuous of the educated and Westernised African elite found more in the South, and he recommended transferring the capital from Lagos, the cosmopolitan city where the influence of these people was most pronounced, to Kaduna in the north. From 1886 to 1899, much of the country was ruled by the Royal Niger Company, authorised by charter, and governed by George Taubman Goldie. The colonial period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which Nigeria gained its independence. Lugard's success in northern Nigeria has been attributed to his policy of indirect rule; that is, he governed the protectorate through the rulers defeated by the British. The growth of Islam in pre-colonial Igbomina / Adesina Yusuf Raji. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the Richards Constitution. In the name of liberating the Igbos from the Aro Confederacy, the British launched the Anglo-Aro War of 19011902. [57], From 1895 to 1900, a railway was constructed running from Lagos to Ibadan; it opened in March 1901. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the Fulani emirs of the Sokoto Caliphate. After 1900, Europe began to introduce changes to colonial rule in an effort to increase revenues from the colonies. The Colonial Era (1882-1960) British colonialism began under the pretense of policing the slave trade. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. Thanks. [73] An estimated 500,000 Nigerians would lose their lives due to the pandemic, severely decreasing production capabilities on Nigerian farms and plantations. They gathered information which was needed for policy-making in administration. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. practice of indirect rule, Brown contends that culture industries like Nollywood can sustain capitalism . Other commercial crops, such as cocoa and rubber, were encouraged, and tin was mined on the Jos Plateau. In case of resistance by one of its friends the other would join hands to mount formidable resistance against colonial rule e.g. [11] In 1891, the African Banking Corporation founded the Bank of British West Africa in Lagos.[33]. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. After 1940, political activities were broadened to include more people. The Headquarters of Gombe emirate was Gombe-Abba[15] until when the then Emir of Gombe, Umaru Kwairanga (18981922), was forced to move from Gombe-Abba, a town founded by his grandfather and the founder of Gombe Emirate, Modibbo Bubayero, to Nafada town in 1913, and then to the current Gombe in 1919, that was after Gombe Emirate was conquered by British colonialists in 1903. The Action Group was largely the creation of Chief Obafemi Awolowo, General Secretary of Egbe Omo Oduduwa and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. In this final section of this module, we will look at four phases of African reaction to . The traders suffered from the risks of their position and believed they were at the mercy of the coastal rulers, whom they considered unpredictable. The staff of this office came primarily from the British upper-middle classi.e., university-educated men, primarily not nobility, with fathers in well-respected professions. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the Oba of Benin, whose office was closely identified with Edo religion, was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. The council was headed by a Governor. How did Africans resist c. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. Three years later internal divisions arose that was dominated by major ethnic loyalties. British and French traders did a large share of this business until 1807 when they were replaced by the Portuguese and the Spaniards. Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. Any activity in the north that might include participation by the federal government (and consequently by southern civil servants) was regarded as a challenge to the primacy of the emirates. The Colonial Civil Service used intermediaries, as the Royal Niger Company had, in an expanded role which included diplomacy, propaganda and espionage. Other Protestant denominations from Great Britain, Canada, and the United States also opened missions and, in the 1860s, Roman Catholic religious orders established missions. The NPC was called on to form a government, but the NCNC received six of the ten ministerial posts. African resistance to colonial rule began with A) The arrival of the Europeans on the continent in the late 19th century B) The end of World War II C) . Over the next decades as colonial rule became institutionalized, African resistance to colonialism became more focused and intense. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulersincluding the Sultan of Sokoto, the Emir of Kano and the Oba of Beninto represent all parts of the colony. They never were able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at Port Harcourt. "John Beecroft, 17901854: Her Brittanic Majesty's Consul to the Bights of Benin and Biafra 18491854". His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than 1,500 kilometres (930mi), passing through the western portions of the Sokoto Caliphate, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near Bussa. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. Antrobus, Fiddes and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard. [19] This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. The Sokoto jihad and the Yoruba wars stimulated the slave trade at a time when the British were actively trying to stop it. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. In 1929, this incident in Nigeria later became one of the reasons for the fight against colonial rule in Africa A) The Nigerian Oil crisis B) The Aba Women's Revolt C) . In 1851 deposed king Akintoye of Lagos sought British help in restoring him to the throne. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the Nigerian federal government at Lagos. [59], Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon. However, in October 1929 in Oloko a census related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at Lancaster House in London in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by The Rt. At that time many scholars believed that Nigeria was able to develop into a stable and fast-growing state due to its huge potential. Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. He was aware that the Muslim north would present problems, but he had hopes for progress along the lines which he laid down in the south, where he anticipated "general emancipation" leading to a more representative form of government. The political parties jockeyed for positions of power in anticipation of the independence of Nigeria. The discussion of pragmatic resistance in Africa comes full circle with the former Portuguese colonies, South Africa, and Kenya. Not wishing to appear out of control or weak, they approved the expedition (two days after it began) on 19 January 1903.,[47] In general, the Colonial Office allowed Lugard's expeditions to continue because they were framed as retaliatory and, as Olivier commented in 1906, "If the millions of people [in Nigeria] who do not want us there once get the notion that our people can be killed with impunity they will not be slow to attempt it."[48]. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned Mungo Park, an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually over the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. But the history of Nigerian demands for greater representation go back to the 1920s. Introduction. The Native Administration was headed by the traditional rulersmostly emirs in the north and often obas in the southand their District Heads, who oversaw a larger number of Village Heads. [19] Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company. In 1923 Herbert Macaulay, the grandson of Samuel Ajayi Crowther, established the first Nigerian political party, the Nigerian National Democratic Party, which successfully contested three Lagos seats in the Legislative Council. In: Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs: (1999), vol. Ist October, 2010, marks The 50th anniversary of Nigeria's independence from imperial Britain. Nigeria became an independent state on the October 1, 1960 after being a British colony for over 40 years. The Macpherson constitution, promulgated in 1951, provided for a central House of Representatives, but friction between the central and regional legislatures, related to the question of where supreme party authority lay, soon caused a breakdown. The British Culture in Nigeria. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule. Significantly, Macauley's NNDP remained almost entirely a Lagos party, popular only in the area whose people already had experience in elective politics. [75] The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation. 3 The Amakholwa's upsurge as a black, conservative, and educated class in the Cape Colony helped establish political resistance to colonial rule. [64], Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. [8], Through a progressive sequence of regimes, the British imposed Crown Colony government on much of the area of West Africa which came to be known as Nigeria, a form of rule which was both autocratic and bureaucratic. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out. [59], Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.[60]. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. The Kikuyu people of Kenya, like most Africans, were laborers with the women doing most work at home while the men found work across the country. Maji-Maji Uprising (Tanganyika) 4. [67], The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. Du Bois. Beecroft agreed on condition that the slave trade be abolished, and British merchants have a monopoly in commodities. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. The British had participated in it until human trafficking was abolished in 1807. His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1921. Adam Smith wrote in 1776 that the African societies were better established and more populous than those of the Americas, thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. [22] Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat. With the exception of Brandenburg-Prussia's short-lived attempt to gain a foothold on the West African coast and to participate in the 17th-century transatlantic slave trade, German colonialism began only in the 1880s. Lagos became a major slave port in the late 1700s and into the 1850s. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. [19], West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 3040% of the demand for British cotton during the Industrial Revolution of 17501790.[27]. British colonialism created Nigeria, but did little to make it a viable, stable, self-sustaining national entity. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. Although Nigeria came under the British charter in 1885 and was . In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as Governor of Hong Kong, to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. [32] This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacks on uncooperative villages. Early on in colonial rule, for example, Nigerians protested the manner in which water rates and head taxes were collected. [29] His servant, Richard Lander, and Lander's brother John were the ones to demonstrate that the Niger flowed into the sea. [17] Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire. The Nigerian Resistance. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. European colonialists had managed to quell the efforts by Africans to resist the establishment of colonial rule with one exception. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. Bolivian indigenous activist Ivan Ignacio, one of many indigenous activists at the second People's Summit in Qubec . resistance to British invasion and colonial rule so as to close that vacuum created by the 'majority syndrome' approach. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa. Village Heads were paid 10 shillings for conscripts, and fined 50 if they failed to supply. The arrival of the British. [72] In the south, he saw the possibility of building an elite educated in schools modelled on a European method (and numerous elite children attended high-ranking colleges in Britain during the colonial years). Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the West African Students Union, founded in London in 1925. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race [] never yet satisfied a nation long and [] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition". what were negative effects of colonial rule in african continent. Revolts took place across Nigeria, but were most frequent in the Niger Delta. Some African Christian communities formed their own independent churches. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian Federal Executive Council. [72], The Influenza pandemic made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida. The Northern People's Congress (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. Each region had a governor, premier, cabinet, legislature, and civil service, with the significantly weaker federal government represented in Lagos by a governor-general, bureaucracy, House of Representatives, and Senate. All were knighted. The early history of Lagos Colony was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. In the 1700s, the British Empire and other European powers had settlements and forts in West Africa but had not yet established the full-scale plantation colonies which existed in the Americas. Anticolonialism in the twentieth and twenty-first century refers to two interconnected concepts: a historical event and a critical analytic. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Nigeria (/ n a d r i / ny-JEER-ee-), officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa.It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea to the south in the Atlantic Ocean.It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi), and with a population of over 225 million, it is the most populous country in Africa, and the world's . [11][12], The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious groups into one federation created internal tension which persists in Nigeria to the present day.[13]. The European struggle to establish forts and trading posts on the West African coast from about the mid-1600s to the mid-1700s was part of the wider competition for trade and empire in the Atlantic. Balewa was called on to head an NPC-NCNC coalition government, and Awolowo became the official leader of the opposition. Separate legislative bodies, the houses of assembly, were established in each of the three regions to consider local questions and to advise the Lieutenant Governors. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1012. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area in the 1885 Berlin Conference. NEPU formed a parliamentary alliance with the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). Nigeria officially became a democracy on its independence from Britain in October 1960. Political activists in the southern areas spoke of self-government in terms of educational opportunities and economic development. As its head, the master trader taxed other traders who were members of his "house"; he maintained a war vessel, a large dugout canoe that could hold several tons of cargo and dozens of crew, for the defense of the harbor. How did British keep Nigerians from developing organized political resistance. Decolonization - Jan C. Jansen 2019-06-11 The end of colonial rule in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean was one of the most Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined slavery and the slave trade. The company's major imports to the area included gin and low-quality firearms. Areas with lucrative crops such as cacao and peanuts (groundnuts) profited, while many people in different parts of the country had to migrate to work elsewhere as tenant farmers or use their newly acquired education and skills to work in cities as wage earners, traders, and artisans. Although colonial rule appeared secure in the first two decades of the 20th century, the British struggled to keep control of their Nigerian colony and continued to do so until Nigeria became independent in 1960. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. The present attempt is to inquire into the educational policy of colonial Nigeria, the aim, the nature and process of educational development and how it affected women in Nigeria. "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." It assumed that comparable alterations would be made elsewhere, an attitude that won the party minority voting support in the other regions. [72] In line with this attitude, he rejected Lugard's proposal for moving the capital from Lagos, the stronghold of the elite in whom he placed so much confidence for the future. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. This is what happened in 1929 when Igbo and Ibibio market women in Owerri and Calabar (Nigeria) made war against warrant chiefs and colonial authorities over issues of taxation and colonial administration. They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1315. It occurs when one nation subjugates another, conquering its population and exploiting it, often while . [11][12], In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at Whitehall. After the Berlin Conference of 1884, Britain announced the formation of the Oil Rivers Protectorate, which included the Niger Delta and extended eastward to Calabar, where the British Consulate General was relocated from Fernando Po. [19] Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British Maxims, the earliest machine gun. Under Goldie's direction, the Royal Niger Company was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. [17] In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute. The colonisers decided to use divide and rule method . It was not a walk over for the British to conquer Nigeria, some individuals and groups resisted the imposition of colonial rule. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 17001850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. Gandhi. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. 1940, political activities were broadened to include more People gradually over the 19th century but! The local area `` John Beecroft, 17901854: Her Brittanic Majesty Consul. Often assumed religious dimensions of a tribal union also emerged in the would... 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